GH-48926: [C++] Upgrade Abseil/Protobuf/GRPC/Google-Cloud-CPP bundled versions (#48964)

### Rationale for this change

The versions we are currently using are really old. There are several advantages on using newer bundled versions but in general they'll bring bug fixes, security fixes and new features.

### What changes are included in this PR?

- Update ABSL from `20211102.0` to `20250127.0`
- Remove now unnecessary CRC32C
- Update Google Cloud CPP from `v2.22.0` to `v3.2.0`
- Updatge gRPC from `v1.46.3` to `v1.76.0`
- Update Protobuf from `v21.3` to `v31.1`
- Older Ubuntu, Debian and RHEL will have to bundle newer ABSL due to CRC32C requirements.
- A couple of minor patches required for Google Cloud old MINGW and protobuf emscripten builds.
- Other minor changes and requirements to build.

### Are these changes tested?

Yes via CI

### Are there any user-facing changes?

Not directly but some old versions (like compiling Google Cloud with old system Abseil) might stop working.

* GitHub Issue: #48926

Lead-authored-by: Raúl Cumplido <raulcumplido@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@cozmixng.org>
Signed-off-by: Raúl Cumplido <raulcumplido@gmail.com>

Author: raulcd

.github/workflows/package_linux.yml

@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ jobs:
       needs.check-labels.outputs.force == 'true' ||
       contains(fromJSON(needs.check-labels.outputs.ci-extra-labels || '[]'), 'CI: Extra') ||
       contains(fromJSON(needs.check-labels.outputs.ci-extra-labels || '[]'), 'CI: Extra: Package: Linux')
-    timeout-minutes: 75
+    timeout-minutes: 120
     strategy:
       fail-fast: false
       matrix:

.github/workflows/ruby.yml

@@ -108,6 +108,7 @@ jobs:
             -e ARROW_FLIGHT=ON \
             -e ARROW_FLIGHT_SQL=ON \
             -e ARROW_GCS=ON \
+            -e nlohmann_json_SOURCE=BUNDLED \
             -e Protobuf_SOURCE=BUNDLED \
             -e gRPC_SOURCE=BUNDLED \
             ubuntu-ruby

ci/docker/ubuntu-24.04-cpp.dockerfile

@@ -174,8 +174,10 @@ RUN /arrow/ci/scripts/install_sccache.sh unknown-linux-musl /usr/local/bin
 #
 # The following dependencies will be downloaded due to missing/invalid packages
 # provided by the distribution:
+# - Abseil is old and we require a version that has CRC32C
 # - opentelemetry-cpp-dev is not packaged
-ENV ARROW_ACERO=ON \
+ENV absl_SOURCE=BUNDLED \
+    ARROW_ACERO=ON \
     ARROW_AZURE=ON \
     ARROW_BUILD_STATIC=ON \
     ARROW_BUILD_TESTS=ON \

ci/scripts/cpp_build.sh

@@ -272,6 +272,7 @@ else
     -DgRPC_SOURCE=${gRPC_SOURCE:-} \
     -DGTest_SOURCE=${GTest_SOURCE:-} \
     -Dlz4_SOURCE=${lz4_SOURCE:-} \
+    -Dnlohmann_json_SOURCE=${nlohmann_json_SOURCE:-} \
     -Dopentelemetry-cpp_SOURCE=${opentelemetry_cpp_SOURCE:-} \
     -DORC_SOURCE=${ORC_SOURCE:-} \
     -DPARQUET_BUILD_EXAMPLES=${PARQUET_BUILD_EXAMPLES:-OFF} \